Visual object counting has recently shifted towards class-agnostic counting (CAC), which addresses the challenge of counting objects across arbitrary categories -- a crucial capability for flexible and generalizable counting systems. Unlike humans, who effortlessly identify and count objects from diverse categories without prior knowledge, most existing counting methods are restricted to enumerating instances of known classes, requiring extensive labeled datasets for training and struggling in open-vocabulary settings. In contrast, CAC aims to count objects belonging to classes never seen during training, operating in a few-shot setting. In this paper, we present the first comprehensive review of CAC methodologies. We propose a taxonomy to categorize CAC approaches into three paradigms based on how target object classes can be specified: reference-based, reference-less, and open-world text-guided. Reference-based approaches achieve state-of-the-art performance by relying on exemplar-guided mechanisms. Reference-less methods eliminate exemplar dependency by leveraging inherent image patterns. Finally, open-world text-guided methods use vision-language models, enabling object class descriptions via textual prompts, offering a flexible and promising solution. Based on this taxonomy, we provide an overview of the architectures of 29 CAC approaches and report their results on gold-standard benchmarks. We compare their performance and discuss their strengths and limitations. Specifically, we present results on the FSC-147 dataset, setting a leaderboard using gold-standard metrics, and on the CARPK dataset to assess generalization capabilities. Finally, we offer a critical discussion of persistent challenges, such as annotation dependency and generalization, alongside future directions. We believe this survey will be a valuable resource, showcasing CAC advancements and guiding future research.
View on arXiv@article{ciampi2025_2501.19184,
title={ A Survey on Class-Agnostic Counting: Advancements from Reference-Based to Open-World Text-Guided Approaches },
author={ Luca Ciampi and Ali Azmoudeh and Elif Ecem Akbaba and Erdi Sarıtaş and Ziya Ata Yazıcı and Hazım Kemal Ekenel and Giuseppe Amato and Fabrizio Falchi },
journal={arXiv preprint arXiv:2501.19184},
year={ 2025 }
}