While in-context learning (ICL) has achieved remarkable success in natural language and vision domains, its theoretical understanding--particularly in the context of structured geometric data--remains unexplored. In this work, we initiate a theoretical study of ICL for regression of Hölder functions on manifolds. By establishing a novel connection between the attention mechanism and classical kernel methods, we derive generalization error bounds in terms of the prompt length and the number of training tasks. When a sufficient number of training tasks are observed, transformers give rise to the minimax regression rate of Hölder functions on manifolds, which scales exponentially with the intrinsic dimension of the manifold, rather than the ambient space dimension. Our result also characterizes how the generalization error scales with the number of training tasks, shedding light on the complexity of transformers as in-context algorithm learners. Our findings provide foundational insights into the role of geometry in ICL and novels tools to study ICL of nonlinear models.
View on arXiv@article{shen2025_2506.10959,
title={ Understanding In-Context Learning on Structured Manifolds: Bridging Attention to Kernel Methods },
author={ Zhaiming Shen and Alexander Hsu and Rongjie Lai and Wenjing Liao },
journal={arXiv preprint arXiv:2506.10959},
year={ 2025 }
}